DBQ - Scientists

During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, science was flourishing in Europe. It was increasing in places such as England and France, with scientists like Francis Bacon and John Calvin. Scientists were able to increase scientific world and the inventions that were being discovered, despite the controversy that was conflicting with their ideas. Galileo, for example, was a scientist who combated with the Church because of his ideas of a heliocentric model of the universe. He was looked down upon but continued his work anyhow. Scientists during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries dealt with challenges, such that it was politically uncommon for woman to study science, scientific ideas conflicted with church teachings, and scientists received social pressures to improve the science of the state so the state would be happy without an ultimate goal, but despite the obstacles they faced, their drive to be scientifically intellectual allowed them to continue their work.

Women were held back from being able to study science and be a known scientist. Women such as Margaret Cavendish wished to explore this subject, but because of their gender, they were prohibited. Cavendish said that if she was able, she would set up a school of natural philosophy, but “I, being a woman, do fear they would soon cast me out of their schools” (doc. 9). Another factor holding scientists back was religion. Gottfried Leibniz believed that God “governs minds as a Prince governs his subjects” (doc. 12). The ideas that God has put forth are correct, despite the science that is proving it incorrect. God has wiped away other ideas that do not portray his ideas. Scientists had to be secretive about their scientific studies and experiments because much of what they were doing went against Church teachings.

Social pressures affected the way that scientists worked. Jean Baptiste Colbert, a French finance minister, said that “we have been persuaded for many years to establish several academies for both letters and science,” and that the happiness of the state depended on how well science flourished. (doc. 11). Scientists felt pressure to keep working to improve the state. Society often wondered if what the scientists were doing was right or wrong. English philosopher Thomas Hobbes, who wrote Leviathan, said that “the doctrine of what is right and wrong is perpetually disputed both by the pen and by the sword, but geometry is not” (doc 7). He believed that in geometry, very few men bothered to care if what they were finding out was the truth or not because it did not depend on anyone’s ambition or profit. However, Hobbes knew that if a mathematician’s idea conflicted with another’s in great power, the idea would be challenged. People paid much closer attention to the work of a scientist than to the work of a mathematician. Marine Mersenne, a French monk and natural philosopher, knew that every single word in his experiments was true. He allowed his patron, whom he wrote a letter to, to come up with any conclusion about his work that he wanted, but to know that everything there was the truth (doc 5). Society put pressure on scientists to make improvements and discoveries, but no goal was in site. Francis Bacon saw this as a major reason why only a small amount of improvement was made in science. He said that it “is not possible to run a race when the goal itself has not been rightly chosen” (doc 4). However, he knew that human beings can make endless discoveries. Social factors contributed to the challenges that scientists faced in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

Despite the negativity or uncertainty towards scientists during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, their work continued on. Nicolaus Copernicus said “the learned and unlearned alike may see that I shrink from no man’s criticism” (doc. 1). In a dedication to Pope Paul III in his book On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres, Copernicus said that he chose to dedicate his studies to Pope Paul III. John Calvin believed that “astronomy is not only pleasant, but it is also very useful” (doc. 2). He continued his studies because he believed that they would benefit others. Giovanni Ciompoli knew that science was always going to be questioned, and he said “it is indispensable, therefore, to remove the possibility of malignant rumors by repeatedly showing your willingness to defer to the authority of those who have jurisdiction over the human intellect” (doc. 3). Despite hardships scientists faced, their studies continued.

Scientists in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were persecuted by society, politics, and religion. Despite all of the negativity they faced, their scientific studies continued, and they made science into what it is today.

Tuesday Free Response - European Monarchs and Sciences and Art

Analyze the ways in which European monarchs used both the arts and the sciences to
enhance state power in the period circa 1500–1800.

Arts and science were prevalent in the period from 1500-1800. Monarchs took advantage of using the arts and sciences in order to further their power and their reign. Events such as the Renaissance, Reformation, and Scientific Revolution occurred in Europe. Monarchs used arts and the sciences to advance their state, however; it was the individual artists and scientists who increased state power, rather than the European monarchs themselves.

Artists and architects were hired and paid by prosperous people and European monarchs from the time of the 16^th century to the 19^th century. Artists and the arts brought wealth to the state. It was not the European monarchs creating the masterpieces, but it was the artists themselves. The artists brought power to the state in the sense that the state became more cultured and dynamic. No buildings, churches, or monarch’s homes could be decorated with artwork if it wasn’t for the artists during this time period. Advancements in time such as the Renaissance could not have been possible without the knowledge and talent of these artists, known artists such as Brunelleschi and Leonardo de Vinci. By adding more urbane artwork and architecture, artists during 1500-1800 brought prestige and power to their states.

The scientific revolution was a time of invention and advancement in the sciences. Galileo, who is known as the “father of science,” is one man who helped form science into what it is today. Galileo named moons of Jupiter, furthered inventions with the telescope, and improved science without the help of European monarchs. Other scientists were also involved in the scientific revolution to further the state and state power, such as Descartes. By creating scientific inventions and advancements in their state, they were able to advance state power because their state would then be scientifically further than other states. Being the only state to have a telescope that is improved, of high quality, and invented and enhanced by Galileo would cause a state to be powerful. The inventions and scientific advancements made by European scientists in the time of the 16^th, 17^th, 18^th, and 19^th century improved the power of the states.

Artists and scientists did not intentionally increase their state power. They were doing their jobs, but they made advancements in Europe that brought much change. The European monarchs were not making inventions, making discoveries, or making artwork. They were simply ruling while the artists and scientists did their jobs and furthered the state. Scientists and artists added culture and intelligibility to their states.

Without the contribution of scientists and artists from 1500-1800 major events in Europe would not have occurred. These would be occasions such as the Renaissance and Scientific Revolution. Both of these events improved power and improved Europe, but they would not have been possible without the individual scientists’ and artists’ work and talent. These events in European history, along with other major events that occurred during this time period, enhanced state power. However, the monarchs were not the ones creating the masterpieces or discovering the inventions, therefore; they were not the cause of the increase in state power.

Theses for Other Possible Essays

5. The Thirty Years' War was a monumental war in Europe, but the countries that were involved created that aftermath of it, and they caused it to be such a big turning point in history.

Thesis Practice 1

In the Treaty of Utrecht, Austria was the most benefited because it gained land from Italy to the Netherlands.

Dutch Republic Free Response Essay

Discuss the ways the 17^th-century Dutch Republic differed from its neighbors, telling how these differences contributed to the country’s success.

The Dutch Republic was “an island of plenty in a sea of want.” It provided much for the merchant class, whose trade, banking, and storage surpassed most others in Europe. It differed from countries around it. The Dutch Republic was powerful in trade, banking, and the arts which set it apart from its neighbors, but France was a more successful country and neighbor to the Dutch than the Dutch Republic was during this time.

The Dutch Republic was a well establish and organized country that did very well for itself during the 17^th century. Its merchant class contributed immensely to its success, whose hands power gathered in. The merchant class provided patronage for the arts, and artists typically created landscapes, seascapes, and still lifes. The Dutch looked down upon the French, naming their excess living “loose-living.” In the Dutch Republic, excess was considered sinful, so the people lived comfortably but not flagrantly. The Dutch East India Company traded with different countries and the Dutch began settling on the coast of South Africa. The Dutch gained many achievements; however, France was more powerful and had more control than the Dutch did.

During the 17^th century, France was controlled by Henry IV, Louis XIII, and Louis XIV. The rule of Henry IV set up the path to France’s rise in Europe. The French set up ties with other countries, trading with both India and Madagascar. With domestic peace after the French nobility was weakened and Louis being able to be an absolute monarch, Louis XIV caused the borders of France to be expanded to include many other reigions. France was the dominant power in Europe during the reign of King Louis XIV. While the Palace of Versailles was said to be extravagant, many imitations were created all over Europe, which proves that it was in fact found to be impressive by many. The War of Devolution brought gains of land to France. Simon Vouet characterized the French Baroque, and French classical architecture was admired by many, even before the Palace of Versailles was built. France became the culture center of Europe during this time; therefore, in this aspect making it greater than the Dutch Republic. The French navy was greater than most, even England’s, being improved from 25 ships to almost 200. The size of the army itself was also increased considerably. France was very powerful during the 17^th century.

During the reign of Louis XIV, France was the dominant power in Europe. Louis XIV was one of the most dominant figures in French history, and he was the most powerful monarch in the 17^th century. France was more powerful than the Dutch Republic was. Louis XIII was able to put politics ahead of religion, make the middle class powerful, and limit the power that the Habsburgs had. With France’s absolute monarchy, it was able to be powerful and controlling to a popular degree. France was able to expand its control and holding to other countries, increasing its power. The Dutch Republic was a powerful country, but not to the extent that France was during this time.

Both the Dutch Republic and France expressed their achievement and ability to be powerful countries. They were strong, well organized, and used the resources available to them during this time. During the 17^th century; however, France’s power reigned through and it was the most powerful country, especially during the reign of Louis XIV, which was the second half of the 17^th century. The Dutch was more powerful than most of its neighbors, but it was not more powerful than France, its one neighbor that utilized its authority with a better ability.

Edited: Galileo Free Response Essay

"Why are the trials and tribulations of Galileo often considered both predicative of the future of Western Civilization as well as a perfect encapsulation of the context of his own time?"

Galileo is known as the “father of science.” He is a famous scientist, who, to this day, still provokes debate and controversy over his beliefs. Galileo studied the microscope, was an advocate for the Copernican theory, and named the moons of Jupiter after the Medici. Galileo was a well known scientist, but he gained more credit than he deserved because during the time of his life others were creating scientific ideas that were just as inventive as his were, and within a short period of time, the scientific revolution would have occurred, even without Galileo.

Galileo was one who advocated the Copernican theory. He was in favor of Nicolas Copernicus, a man who lived before Galileo and invented the heliocentric model of the universe. The Copernican theory stated that the sun is at the center of the universe. The Copernican theory also explained the order of the planets and that Earth has three rotations: daily, annually, and the annual tilting of its axis. Galileo received so much attention because he defended Copernicus and the Copernican theory. He discussed Copernicanism in his books and was finally asked not to teach or advocate the Copernican theory after being brought in front of an audience. Galileo was made very famous because he defended the Copernican theory, but he was not the one who came up with the innovative ideas. Galileo merely accepted the theory to be true, while Nicolas Copernicus was the one who changed the course of history by introducing these facts of the universe and planets. Copernicus should receive credit for his ideas, rather than Galileo receiving credit for defending them. Without Nicolas Copernicus bringing about his ideas of heliocentricism, Galileo would have had nothing to defend and nothing to advocate to the public. Galileo did not come up with the Copernican theory; he simply believed in what it said. It was Nicolas Copernicus who really deserved credit for his ideas.

It is true that Galileo can be credited with advancing science during his time and offering new ideas to be accepted or rejected, but others during his time had already begun thinking in these terms. A 16^th century French essayist asked the question, “What do I know?” and answered, “Nothing.” Later both a French man and an English man looked further than thinking about the information and ideas presented to them in the past. Instead, they taught new ways to obtain knowledge. They practiced methods that could be applied to nature, new inventions, and improving ways of life. Francis Bacon, the English man who looked further than thinking about the past, came up with the empirical method and from his ideas emerged the possibility of “progress.” Descartes was the French man who looked further than thinking about the past, and he said people should start with a blank slate in order to learn the basics of things and then increase in the difficulty of what one was learning. He divided everything into mind and matter, which was the physical world and the spiritual world. He believed that matter could be described mathematically. After Bacon and Descartes, men such as Kepler, Galileo, and Newton used their ideas to further their thinking and mathematical and scientific achievement. Without Bacon, Descartes, and their thinking, Galileo would not have made as many improvements as he did. Galileo’s work was based off of other men who should have received more credit than they did. Galileo received the credit for work in which he used other’s ideas and would not have been able to produce without those ideas.

The scientific revolution was going to occur, with or without Galileo’s inventions or ideas. The world, with its advancements and new ideas, was ready for a revolution. There were people just as smart, if not smarter, as Galileo who could take the world into a new chapter of science. Isaac Newton, for example, was a man who invented the law of universal gravitation. Many men in the field of medicine improve science, and Vesalius was even the founder of biological science. He was the first to assemble a human skeleton. William Harvey explained blood circulation; Marcello discovered blood corpuscles and bacteria, and Regnier described ovaries. Edward Jenner achieved the biggest medical advancement. These men, along with many others during their time not mentioned, would have made the scientific revolution happen. Galileo did not need to be involved.

Although Galileo was a man who is said to be a ‘hero’ of science, his inventions only contributed partially to the scientific revolution, and many of his ideas were based off of other people that should receive the same amount, if not more credit than Galileo did.

Great Fire of London

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Galileo Free Response Essay

"Why are the trials and tribulations of Galileo often considered both predicative of the future of Western Civilization as well as a perfect encapsulation of the context of his own time?"

Galileo was considered to be a “hero” of science, one who brought about new ideas, and questioned and contemplated old ones. He became a famous man because of his accomplishments, and also because of his impact on Western Civilization. He went through hardships to reach his goals of becoming a great mathematician and philosopher. The trials and tribulations of Galileo were beneficiary to the science of his own time, while also affecting the science, mathematics, and methodology that would bring about debate and be revolutionized in the years to come.

Galileo was a man of great knowledge. He supported the Copernican theory, which was a theory introduced by Nicolas Copernicus. This theory, or system, dealt with the axis of planets, the sun, and their rotation. Galileo was a supporter of this theory, and even wrote a book about it. He was then asked not to be a promoter for this theory and to stop all advocacies that he was doing. Later in Galileo’s life, he was put on trial and condemned because of a book he wrote that was published. With these examples, it is obvious to see that Galileo put himself on the line for what he believed in and for what he had accomplished He did not back down from his beliefs, even though he was questioned about them because of the skeptical period of time that he lived in. When Galileo was born, the word ‘science’ was not a known thing, but when he died, science was well on its way to becoming very popular, and at the same time, very interesting. Galileo took great part in this new idea and way of thinking. He was named Mathematician at the University of Padua and was an aid to the Duke of Tuscany because of his knowledge. He was appreciated and admired for his knowledge in the world of science and mathematics. During Galileo’s time, science and mathematics were not the focus on most people mind, but Galileo’s mind worked differently, and he thought differently. He continued to gain knowledge, ideas, skills, and facts that would help him to be a great mathematician and philosopher, and ultimately, the ‘hero’ of science that he is known as today. He helped to establish a way of thinking and a new subject to be studied during his years of life.

During the time of Galileo, the world of science started to grow. Science was not known when Galileo was born, but when he died, it was very well on its way to being a well-known idea, instead of just a new concept that was beginning to be looked at. He contributed immensely to this monumental time in history with his wealth of knowledge and ideas. Galileo made improvements that would forever change the world. Improvements were such that he named the moons of Jupiter after the Medici, studied the telescope and all the wondrous things that could be achieved with it, and wrote many books about the knowledge that he was gaining. With the findings from studying the telescope, Galileo wrote The Starry Messenger. Galileo was a man who brought about much change and intelligibility that affected the age of science that was prevalent in the world around him. His ideas stayed with those he left before him, and they are still with the world today.

To this day, Galileo’s work is being questioned. A common question asked, ‘How does his mathematics relate to natural philosophy?’ It is said that Galileo’s work is able to be split into three groups: science, methodology, and mathematics. Without his improvements during his years of life, Western Civilization would not have been impacted in the way that it has been, and debate would not still be going on hundreds of years later about Galileo’s life and works. Galileo’s wise thoughts and words helped to shape the scientific revolution that occurred in Europe. His work showed the revolution that was just yet to come. It pointed towards a bright future that expressed the new age of science and math in the world.

Galileo’s knowledge will never be forgotten. His ways of thinking changed the history of the world and the way that many topics and subject are looked at and viewed. He truly was a ‘hero’ of science, one whose accomplishment were tremendous. Galileo went through trials and tribulations, but shared his knowledge with the world, shaped the future, and perpetually changed how people look at the world of science and mathematics.