DBQ - Scientists

During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, science was flourishing in Europe. It was increasing in places such as England and France, with scientists like Francis Bacon and John Calvin. Scientists were able to increase scientific world and the inventions that were being discovered, despite the controversy that was conflicting with their ideas. Galileo, for example, was a scientist who combated with the Church because of his ideas of a heliocentric model of the universe. He was looked down upon but continued his work anyhow. Scientists during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries dealt with challenges, such that it was politically uncommon for woman to study science, scientific ideas conflicted with church teachings, and scientists received social pressures to improve the science of the state so the state would be happy without an ultimate goal, but despite the obstacles they faced, their drive to be scientifically intellectual allowed them to continue their work.

Women were held back from being able to study science and be a known scientist. Women such as Margaret Cavendish wished to explore this subject, but because of their gender, they were prohibited. Cavendish said that if she was able, she would set up a school of natural philosophy, but “I, being a woman, do fear they would soon cast me out of their schools” (doc. 9). Another factor holding scientists back was religion. Gottfried Leibniz believed that God “governs minds as a Prince governs his subjects” (doc. 12). The ideas that God has put forth are correct, despite the science that is proving it incorrect. God has wiped away other ideas that do not portray his ideas. Scientists had to be secretive about their scientific studies and experiments because much of what they were doing went against Church teachings.

Social pressures affected the way that scientists worked. Jean Baptiste Colbert, a French finance minister, said that “we have been persuaded for many years to establish several academies for both letters and science,” and that the happiness of the state depended on how well science flourished. (doc. 11). Scientists felt pressure to keep working to improve the state. Society often wondered if what the scientists were doing was right or wrong. English philosopher Thomas Hobbes, who wrote Leviathan, said that “the doctrine of what is right and wrong is perpetually disputed both by the pen and by the sword, but geometry is not” (doc 7). He believed that in geometry, very few men bothered to care if what they were finding out was the truth or not because it did not depend on anyone’s ambition or profit. However, Hobbes knew that if a mathematician’s idea conflicted with another’s in great power, the idea would be challenged. People paid much closer attention to the work of a scientist than to the work of a mathematician. Marine Mersenne, a French monk and natural philosopher, knew that every single word in his experiments was true. He allowed his patron, whom he wrote a letter to, to come up with any conclusion about his work that he wanted, but to know that everything there was the truth (doc 5). Society put pressure on scientists to make improvements and discoveries, but no goal was in site. Francis Bacon saw this as a major reason why only a small amount of improvement was made in science. He said that it “is not possible to run a race when the goal itself has not been rightly chosen” (doc 4). However, he knew that human beings can make endless discoveries. Social factors contributed to the challenges that scientists faced in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

Despite the negativity or uncertainty towards scientists during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, their work continued on. Nicolaus Copernicus said “the learned and unlearned alike may see that I shrink from no man’s criticism” (doc. 1). In a dedication to Pope Paul III in his book On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres, Copernicus said that he chose to dedicate his studies to Pope Paul III. John Calvin believed that “astronomy is not only pleasant, but it is also very useful” (doc. 2). He continued his studies because he believed that they would benefit others. Giovanni Ciompoli knew that science was always going to be questioned, and he said “it is indispensable, therefore, to remove the possibility of malignant rumors by repeatedly showing your willingness to defer to the authority of those who have jurisdiction over the human intellect” (doc. 3). Despite hardships scientists faced, their studies continued.

Scientists in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were persecuted by society, politics, and religion. Despite all of the negativity they faced, their scientific studies continued, and they made science into what it is today.