DBQ - Scientists

During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, science was flourishing in Europe. It was increasing in places such as England and France, with scientists like Francis Bacon and John Calvin. Scientists were able to increase scientific world and the inventions that were being discovered, despite the controversy that was conflicting with their ideas. Galileo, for example, was a scientist who combated with the Church because of his ideas of a heliocentric model of the universe. He was looked down upon but continued his work anyhow. Scientists during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries dealt with challenges, such that it was politically uncommon for woman to study science, scientific ideas conflicted with church teachings, and scientists received social pressures to improve the science of the state so the state would be happy without an ultimate goal, but despite the obstacles they faced, their drive to be scientifically intellectual allowed them to continue their work.

Women were held back from being able to study science and be a known scientist. Women such as Margaret Cavendish wished to explore this subject, but because of their gender, they were prohibited. Cavendish said that if she was able, she would set up a school of natural philosophy, but “I, being a woman, do fear they would soon cast me out of their schools” (doc. 9). Another factor holding scientists back was religion. Gottfried Leibniz believed that God “governs minds as a Prince governs his subjects” (doc. 12). The ideas that God has put forth are correct, despite the science that is proving it incorrect. God has wiped away other ideas that do not portray his ideas. Scientists had to be secretive about their scientific studies and experiments because much of what they were doing went against Church teachings.

Social pressures affected the way that scientists worked. Jean Baptiste Colbert, a French finance minister, said that “we have been persuaded for many years to establish several academies for both letters and science,” and that the happiness of the state depended on how well science flourished. (doc. 11). Scientists felt pressure to keep working to improve the state. Society often wondered if what the scientists were doing was right or wrong. English philosopher Thomas Hobbes, who wrote Leviathan, said that “the doctrine of what is right and wrong is perpetually disputed both by the pen and by the sword, but geometry is not” (doc 7). He believed that in geometry, very few men bothered to care if what they were finding out was the truth or not because it did not depend on anyone’s ambition or profit. However, Hobbes knew that if a mathematician’s idea conflicted with another’s in great power, the idea would be challenged. People paid much closer attention to the work of a scientist than to the work of a mathematician. Marine Mersenne, a French monk and natural philosopher, knew that every single word in his experiments was true. He allowed his patron, whom he wrote a letter to, to come up with any conclusion about his work that he wanted, but to know that everything there was the truth (doc 5). Society put pressure on scientists to make improvements and discoveries, but no goal was in site. Francis Bacon saw this as a major reason why only a small amount of improvement was made in science. He said that it “is not possible to run a race when the goal itself has not been rightly chosen” (doc 4). However, he knew that human beings can make endless discoveries. Social factors contributed to the challenges that scientists faced in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

Despite the negativity or uncertainty towards scientists during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, their work continued on. Nicolaus Copernicus said “the learned and unlearned alike may see that I shrink from no man’s criticism” (doc. 1). In a dedication to Pope Paul III in his book On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres, Copernicus said that he chose to dedicate his studies to Pope Paul III. John Calvin believed that “astronomy is not only pleasant, but it is also very useful” (doc. 2). He continued his studies because he believed that they would benefit others. Giovanni Ciompoli knew that science was always going to be questioned, and he said “it is indispensable, therefore, to remove the possibility of malignant rumors by repeatedly showing your willingness to defer to the authority of those who have jurisdiction over the human intellect” (doc. 3). Despite hardships scientists faced, their studies continued.

Scientists in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were persecuted by society, politics, and religion. Despite all of the negativity they faced, their scientific studies continued, and they made science into what it is today.

Tuesday Free Response - European Monarchs and Sciences and Art

Analyze the ways in which European monarchs used both the arts and the sciences to
enhance state power in the period circa 1500–1800.

Arts and science were prevalent in the period from 1500-1800. Monarchs took advantage of using the arts and sciences in order to further their power and their reign. Events such as the Renaissance, Reformation, and Scientific Revolution occurred in Europe. Monarchs used arts and the sciences to advance their state, however; it was the individual artists and scientists who increased state power, rather than the European monarchs themselves.

Artists and architects were hired and paid by prosperous people and European monarchs from the time of the 16^th century to the 19^th century. Artists and the arts brought wealth to the state. It was not the European monarchs creating the masterpieces, but it was the artists themselves. The artists brought power to the state in the sense that the state became more cultured and dynamic. No buildings, churches, or monarch’s homes could be decorated with artwork if it wasn’t for the artists during this time period. Advancements in time such as the Renaissance could not have been possible without the knowledge and talent of these artists, known artists such as Brunelleschi and Leonardo de Vinci. By adding more urbane artwork and architecture, artists during 1500-1800 brought prestige and power to their states.

The scientific revolution was a time of invention and advancement in the sciences. Galileo, who is known as the “father of science,” is one man who helped form science into what it is today. Galileo named moons of Jupiter, furthered inventions with the telescope, and improved science without the help of European monarchs. Other scientists were also involved in the scientific revolution to further the state and state power, such as Descartes. By creating scientific inventions and advancements in their state, they were able to advance state power because their state would then be scientifically further than other states. Being the only state to have a telescope that is improved, of high quality, and invented and enhanced by Galileo would cause a state to be powerful. The inventions and scientific advancements made by European scientists in the time of the 16^th, 17^th, 18^th, and 19^th century improved the power of the states.

Artists and scientists did not intentionally increase their state power. They were doing their jobs, but they made advancements in Europe that brought much change. The European monarchs were not making inventions, making discoveries, or making artwork. They were simply ruling while the artists and scientists did their jobs and furthered the state. Scientists and artists added culture and intelligibility to their states.

Without the contribution of scientists and artists from 1500-1800 major events in Europe would not have occurred. These would be occasions such as the Renaissance and Scientific Revolution. Both of these events improved power and improved Europe, but they would not have been possible without the individual scientists’ and artists’ work and talent. These events in European history, along with other major events that occurred during this time period, enhanced state power. However, the monarchs were not the ones creating the masterpieces or discovering the inventions, therefore; they were not the cause of the increase in state power.

Theses for Other Possible Essays

5. The Thirty Years' War was a monumental war in Europe, but the countries that were involved created that aftermath of it, and they caused it to be such a big turning point in history.