Peter the Great and Catherine the Great Free Response Essay

Analyze the methods and degrees of success of Russian political and social reform
from the period of Peter the Great (1689–1725) through Catherine the Great
(1762–1796).

I. The degrees of success of Russian political and social reform from the period of Peter the Great through Catherine the Great were equally comparable, with Russia being expanded and wars being won, and both had downfalls, such as the peasantry being in a distressing state; but Peter the Great’s desire to make Russia into a European power did not happen until Catherine the Great came to power, therefore making her reign more successful.

II. Peter’s achievements: learned tactics and strategies but never carried them out, had the tools but didn’t pursue enough, gained knowledge of Western Europe industrial techniques and state administration, established schools, replaced church patriarchy

III. Catherine’s achievement: loved by the people, increase central control over provinces, skilled as a diplomat, Russia’s influence in European affairs increased, patron of arts

IV. Catherine and Peter’s downfalls: Peter did not fully make Russia to what he wanted, both left the peasantry distressed, Catherine reversed liberal forms, Peter made others think he was the antichrist

V. Conclusion and summary of both reigns

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Up until the time of the rule of Peter the Great, Russia was a country that kept to itself and was not involved with Europe or European affairs. Russia was not up to par with the technology and advancements that where taking place in the rest of Europe. When Peter the Great came to power; however, his goal was to make Russia into a European power, expanding its rule and advancing its knowledge. When Catherine the Great became Empress, her goal was similar, which was to expand on Peter the Great’s ideas and to further Russia into a prosperous power. The degrees of success of Russian political and social reform from the period of Peter the Great through Catherine the Great were equally comparable, with events such as Russia being expanded and wars being won, and both had downfalls, such as the peasantry being in a distressing state; but Peter the Great’s desire to make Russia into a European power did not happen until Catherine the Great came to power, therefore making her reign more successful.

Peter the Great’s main goal in ruling Russia was to make it into a European power. Many achievements were reached when Peter was head of Russia. When he was growing up, he gained knowledge of things such as Western Europe industrial techniques and state administration. In attempts to make Russia a solidified power, Peter made reforms such as establishing schools, replacing church patriarchy, simplifying the alphabet, and so on. Peter studied and had the tools to make Russia into a ruling power, but he ultimately did not do enough to make it reach the standards that he had hoped for. Peter the Great got the reform of Russia rolling, but he was not able to carry through his hopes and imaginings.

Catherine the Great reigned from 1762 to 1796 in Russia. She was the most sovereign rule in Russia. Catherine was a loved ruled; she was loved by the Russian people. Catherine reached achievements such as increasing central control over provinces and increasing Russia’s influence in European affairs. Catherine was skilled as a diplomat and was a patron of the arts. Catherine built and founded a museum, commissioned buildings all over Russia, and did other things such as corresponding with French Encyclopedists. Catherine was able to make Russia into a ruling power, something that Peter the Great wanted to do, but did not succeed in doing. She was thought to be, by others, the most superior ruler in Russia. Catherine improved academies, journals, and libraries. Catherine the Great’s reign was truly one of huge success.

While Catherine and Peter had successful reigns in Russia, both had some downfalls. Peter wanted to make Russia a supreme ruling power in Europe. During his reign and during his life time, he did not achieve that goal. He had studied and learned way to make this happen, but it ultimately did not. The public began to think that Peter the Great was the antichrist because he introduced many reforms and restrictions. He was not as loved by the people as was Catherine. Catherine also had a few downfalls in her reign, such as reversing liberal reforms. Both rulers left the peasantry distressed, which was a major downfall in each other their reigns.

Peter the Great began the idea of making Russia into a ruling power in Europe. During his reign, he did not succeed. He failed at his ultimate goal, making Russia at the top. Catherine the Great, however; brought Russia to a higher status and allowed it to fully prosper. Catherine the Great’s reign overall was more successful because she reached the goal that Peter the Great had aimed for, but ultimately did not achieve. Both reigns were noteworthy, but Catherine the Great’s reign proved to be more successful.

Exam - DBQ

Analyze the concerns and goals of participants in the Pilgrimage of Grace and of those who opposed the movements.

o The participants of the Pilgrimage of Grace were concerned with getting back what was taken away from them, and their goal was to get rid of all evil people implementing policies that the public were opposed to, mainly Cromwell, while the ones opposed to the Pilgrimage, such as Henry VIII, believed that it might have ruined the country and was not necessary.

o Many monasteries

o Rulers did not defend the country, so participants relied on faith and the ability to help one another out

o Wanted Cromwell gone

o Leeche said it could have been prevented

In 1543, the Act of Supremacy was passed, making Henry VIII the head of the Anglican Church. This marked the beginning of the Protestant Reformation. Thomas Cromwell then implemented a series of government policies. These policies included new taxes, the expansion of royal power in the north of England, the dissolution of monasteries, and the confiscation of Catholic church lands. The Pilgrimage of Grace occurred because of these new policies. Marchers protested and demonstrated why they were right and Oliver Cromwell was wrong. The Pilgrimage of Grace occurred from October 1536 to February 1537. The participants of the Pilgrimage of Grace were concerned with getting back what was taken away from them, and their goal was to get rid of all evil people implementing policies that the public were opposed to, mainly Cromwell, while the ones opposed to the Pilgrimage, such as Henry VIII, believed that it might have ruined the country and was not necessary.

People participated in the Pilgrimage of Grace only for their “love of God, for the Holy Catholic Church militant, for the preservation of the king and his heirs, for the purification of the nobility, and to expel all evil counselors” (doc. 1). The participants had to rely on “charity, faith, poverty, and pity” (doc.2). They had to be able to help one another out if they were to be robbed or invaded. They told their “most Sovereign king” that they wanted certain heresies destroyed, the Supreme head of the Church to be the pope, the monasteries’ things returned to them, and to have Oliver Cromwell punished (doc. 5). The list continues, but the main goal of the participants of the Pilgrimage of Grace was to restore their country as it was before policies were implemented by Oliver Cromwell. Participants were angry with the fact that the Parliament spoke, not only of the King’s thoughts, but of Cromwell’s as well (doc. 6). They believed that Cromwell had too much power and should not exceed the power of that of the King.

Monks were particularly unhappy with the policies put in place by Oliver Cromwell because they took away monks’ properties. Catholic monks proposed a ballad that read, “Great God’s fame, does the Church proclaim, now to be lame, and held in bonds. Robbed, spoiled and shorn of cattle and corn, houses and lands” (doc. 4). The monasteries were robbed of their houses and land, and they participated in the Pilgrimage of Grace to try to gain all of that back. In a re-creation of a banner by marchers, the “Wounds of Christ” were depicted. It was blood dripping from a central heart, with blood also dripping from hands and feet. On the outside of this were a chalice, a plow, and a cattle horn (doc. 3). This banner symbolized the monks. The monks were the ones suffering because they had had pretty much everything taken away from them. Another person who was unhappy with what was going on was Robert Aske. Shorty before his execution, he gave a testimony, and he said that any money now being earned from abbey lands are going directly to the King. Strangers and beggars have no help on the roads (doc. 11). Aske is basically saying that everything now became based around the King, and the monasteries were not around to be of help. Things such as sea walls, dikes, and bridges that were once maintained by the monasteries were not anymore because the monks were now protesting. Monasteries were not out to help others, they were out for themselves, but they needed their land and houses in order to serve the good of the people.

Nicholas Leeche believed that this rebellion could have been stopped. He said that “the gentleman could have stopped the rebellion then, but did not, never believing their actions to be offensive to the King” (doc. 8) He is saying that the actions of Cromwell and his men were offensive to the King because of all the trouble and turmoil their new policies stirred up. Leeche believed the rebellion could have been prevented if the leaders had had any idea that this much controversy would occur. Henry VIII said to the marchers that the rebellion they committed might have ruined their country (doc. 9). The marchers gave comfort to the Scots, who were their enemies. The King was, however, sorry for what had come about from the policies, but he was very much opposed to the pilgrimage. Trials occurred for the marchers in the Pilgrimage of Grance. Many commoners were convicted in the first treason trials of participants that occurred from January to March in 1537. A total number of 144 people were convicted, 110 of them being commoners (doc. 10).

A writer hired by Thomas Cromwell said that “when every many rules, who shall obey?” (doc. 7). He said that those of lesser importance or of a lesser role and society need to comply with the fact that those with more power are going to rule over them. The marchers and participants of the Pilgrimage of Grace did not see it this way. They believed they should not have everything taken away from them, especially by someone who is not even the king. The participants had every right to protest what was going on, and if their protesting ruined their country, then Cromwell should have thought about that before implementing new government policies.

Exam - Free Response 2

Free Response #2: Discuss the political and social consequences of the Protestant Reformation in the first half of the sixteen century.

o The political and social consequences of the Protestant Reformation in the first half of the sixteenth century were evident in the persecution for going against the Catholic Church, debate about religion and splitting of states because of religious view, and having ruling power depending on whether one was Protestant or Catholic.

o Martin Luther began the Protestant Reformation by posting his 95 Theses on the door of the Wittenberg Cathedral. He was going against the sale of indulgences that the Pope had put into place.

o Separation of states occurred because of the religious views. Places became Anabaptist, Lutheran, Calvinist, and some places remained Catholic. England stayed mostly Catholic.

o Political consequences were major; monarchs became concerned in whether their country was Protestant or Catholic, depending on what religion they were. Mary I of England was called “Bloody Mary” because she killed all those who were not Catholic. War broke occurred between the Protestants and the Catholics, with the Catholics winning the first two phases, and the Protestants winning the next. Four phases took place. Politcal consequences pushed on even further than the sixteenth century when Louis XIV had many Protestants leave his country.

The Protestant Reformation took place in the sixteenth century. Much of it began when Henry VIII issued the Act of Supremacy. The Protestant Reformation caused a disconnection in Europe because people chose whether or not to be Protestant or Catholic. The political and social consequences of the Protestant Reformation in the first half of the sixteenth century were evident in the persecution for going against the Catholic Church, debate about religion and splitting of states because of religious view, and having ruling power depending on whether one was Protestant or Catholic.

Henry VIII issued the Act of Supremacy to make himself head of the Catholic Church. Martin Luther was a Catholic monk who was opposed the Pope’s selling of indulges. To explain why he was against this selling and how it went against his faith, posted his 95 Theses. He posted the 95 Theses on October 31 on the Wittenberg Cathedral. This created much controversy and conflict. Luther was not accepted by the Catholic Church anymore after going against it in such a public way. Martin Luther was persecuted for his beliefs, but he took his ideas and turned them into a new religion for people to follow. He created Lutheranism. Martin Luther created consequences for the Church, but he allowed the public to choose whether or not they agreed with Catholic views or with his.

During the sixteenth century, many people were Roman Catholic and believed in the Catholic views, faith, and beliefs. When the Protestant Reformation came about, separation of states occurred because of the religious views. Places became Anabaptist, Lutheran, Calvinist, and some places remained Catholic. England was one place that stayed mostly Catholic. These religions had very different views, some of these ideas being that Anabaptists believed in complete separation from Church and state and Calvinist believed in predestination. States were not longer united because they were separated by their religion.

Political consequences were very evident from the Protestant Reformation. Monarchs in Europe became concerned in whether their country was Protestant or Catholic, depending on what religion they were. Mary I of England is an example of someone who took it into their own hands to turn a country back into the religion of their choice. Mary I of England was called “Bloody Mary” because she killed all those who were not Catholic. Hundreds were burned at the stake in just a short amount of time. The Thiry Years’ War developed; a war occurring between the Protestants and the Catholics, with the Catholics winning the first two phases, and the Protestants winning the next. Four total phases took place. Political consequences from the Protestant Reformation had such a big impact on European states that they pushed on even further than the sixteenth century when Louis XIV had many Protestants leave his country. Politics were greatly influenced by the Protestant Reformation.

Exam - Free Response 1

Free Response #1: Describe and analyze how overseas expansion by European states affected global trade and international relations from 1600 to 1715.

o Overseas expansion by European states affected global trade and international relations by increasing the appeal to explore, which brought in resources, money, and goods, allowing Europe to become even wealthier than it was with the implementation of taxes and trade, and giving Europe control over the areas being discovered, such as the Americas.

o Animals, spices, food was taken from Europe to Americas. Once things were taken there, America and Europe could trade with each other.

o Explorers such as Christopher Columbus and Hernando Cortez established new areas to trade and explore. Incas and Aztecs were found. Cape of Good Hope was discovered.

o Europe was able to gain wealth by taxing people in the Americas and sustaining how they lived. They could sell goods to them at a high price.

o Europe gained power, and because of the discoveries of multiple places with navigation routes mapped out, trade increased. Relations between countries came into existence because they were communicating through trade.

Overseas expansion by European states was prevalent from 1600 to 1715. With many explorers seeing the work of others take off, they became interested in doing the same and finding what they could in areas such as India, Brazil, and the North America. Specific people such as Hernando Cortez, Francisco Pizarro, and Christopher Columbus used their interest in exploring to discover new places. Overseas expansion by European states affected global trade and international relations by increasing the appeal to explore, which brought in resources, money, and goods, allowing Europe to become even wealthier than it was with the implementation of taxes and trade, and giving Europe control over the areas being discovered, such as the Americas.

Trade was able to increase when trade routes where established between Europe and the newly discovered places, such as America, the Caribbean, and India. Animals were able to be taken from Europe and put in the new world, these animals being pigs, cow, sheep, etc. Spices and food were also taken to the Americas. The Americas could also share the knowledge that it had and its resources with Europe. When the Americas were discovered, trade could begin with the colonies that were established along the eastern shore. Knowing the easiest route to America as drawn out by explorers, trade could be easier than it ever was before. Trade could increase with the number of people that went to the Americas and with the knowledge of the route to get there. By trading, Europe was gaining new resources that could expand its prosperity, power, and rule.

Explorers, such as Christopher Columbus and Hernando Cortez established new areas to trade and explore. The Incas and Aztecs were discovered by Cortez and Pizarro. The Cape of Good Hope was another trade route and place that was discovered. With these places being discovered, and Europe discovering them first, Europe gained power and control. Prince Henry the Navigator was another person who was very much in favor of exploration. Christopher Columbus, one of the main people who established the Americas, was funded by the Queen. He opened up a whole new trade route by discovering the Americas. With all of these areas being discovered, Europe was opening up a multitude of new trade routes. It also had claim on the areas because it was the one that discovered their existence.

The Americas were a major trade route for Europe. With colonies being set up, and parts of Europe claiming many parts of North America, trade could begin. Countries claimed their territory; for example Spain claimed what is known today to be Florida and the Dutch settled in what it now Canada. Europe was able to tax those people that left and moved to the colonies in the Americas. Europe could sell goods to the Americas at a high price because the people living in the colonies needed these goods to live. The trade coming from the Americas could be sold at a low cost to Europe because the makers needed money and wanted their goods to be sold. Europe was able to have a distinct hold over the Americas. It controlled what went on and how trade occurred. The Americas became a major trade route for Europe.

Europe gained power, and because of the discoveries of multiple places, the Americas, the Caribbean, Brazil, and India, and having navigation routes already mapped out, trade increased. Explorers used their drive to discover to discover places that were very beneficial to Europe. Relations between countries came into existence because they were communicating through trade. Europe remained the dominant power because it had control over so much that it had discovered.

DBQ - Scientists

During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, science was flourishing in Europe. It was increasing in places such as England and France, with scientists like Francis Bacon and John Calvin. Scientists were able to increase scientific world and the inventions that were being discovered, despite the controversy that was conflicting with their ideas. Galileo, for example, was a scientist who combated with the Church because of his ideas of a heliocentric model of the universe. He was looked down upon but continued his work anyhow. Scientists during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries dealt with challenges, such that it was politically uncommon for woman to study science, scientific ideas conflicted with church teachings, and scientists received social pressures to improve the science of the state so the state would be happy without an ultimate goal, but despite the obstacles they faced, their drive to be scientifically intellectual allowed them to continue their work.

Women were held back from being able to study science and be a known scientist. Women such as Margaret Cavendish wished to explore this subject, but because of their gender, they were prohibited. Cavendish said that if she was able, she would set up a school of natural philosophy, but “I, being a woman, do fear they would soon cast me out of their schools” (doc. 9). Another factor holding scientists back was religion. Gottfried Leibniz believed that God “governs minds as a Prince governs his subjects” (doc. 12). The ideas that God has put forth are correct, despite the science that is proving it incorrect. God has wiped away other ideas that do not portray his ideas. Scientists had to be secretive about their scientific studies and experiments because much of what they were doing went against Church teachings.

Social pressures affected the way that scientists worked. Jean Baptiste Colbert, a French finance minister, said that “we have been persuaded for many years to establish several academies for both letters and science,” and that the happiness of the state depended on how well science flourished. (doc. 11). Scientists felt pressure to keep working to improve the state. Society often wondered if what the scientists were doing was right or wrong. English philosopher Thomas Hobbes, who wrote Leviathan, said that “the doctrine of what is right and wrong is perpetually disputed both by the pen and by the sword, but geometry is not” (doc 7). He believed that in geometry, very few men bothered to care if what they were finding out was the truth or not because it did not depend on anyone’s ambition or profit. However, Hobbes knew that if a mathematician’s idea conflicted with another’s in great power, the idea would be challenged. People paid much closer attention to the work of a scientist than to the work of a mathematician. Marine Mersenne, a French monk and natural philosopher, knew that every single word in his experiments was true. He allowed his patron, whom he wrote a letter to, to come up with any conclusion about his work that he wanted, but to know that everything there was the truth (doc 5). Society put pressure on scientists to make improvements and discoveries, but no goal was in site. Francis Bacon saw this as a major reason why only a small amount of improvement was made in science. He said that it “is not possible to run a race when the goal itself has not been rightly chosen” (doc 4). However, he knew that human beings can make endless discoveries. Social factors contributed to the challenges that scientists faced in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

Despite the negativity or uncertainty towards scientists during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, their work continued on. Nicolaus Copernicus said “the learned and unlearned alike may see that I shrink from no man’s criticism” (doc. 1). In a dedication to Pope Paul III in his book On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres, Copernicus said that he chose to dedicate his studies to Pope Paul III. John Calvin believed that “astronomy is not only pleasant, but it is also very useful” (doc. 2). He continued his studies because he believed that they would benefit others. Giovanni Ciompoli knew that science was always going to be questioned, and he said “it is indispensable, therefore, to remove the possibility of malignant rumors by repeatedly showing your willingness to defer to the authority of those who have jurisdiction over the human intellect” (doc. 3). Despite hardships scientists faced, their studies continued.

Scientists in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were persecuted by society, politics, and religion. Despite all of the negativity they faced, their scientific studies continued, and they made science into what it is today.

Tuesday Free Response - European Monarchs and Sciences and Art

Analyze the ways in which European monarchs used both the arts and the sciences to
enhance state power in the period circa 1500–1800.

Arts and science were prevalent in the period from 1500-1800. Monarchs took advantage of using the arts and sciences in order to further their power and their reign. Events such as the Renaissance, Reformation, and Scientific Revolution occurred in Europe. Monarchs used arts and the sciences to advance their state, however; it was the individual artists and scientists who increased state power, rather than the European monarchs themselves.

Artists and architects were hired and paid by prosperous people and European monarchs from the time of the 16^th century to the 19^th century. Artists and the arts brought wealth to the state. It was not the European monarchs creating the masterpieces, but it was the artists themselves. The artists brought power to the state in the sense that the state became more cultured and dynamic. No buildings, churches, or monarch’s homes could be decorated with artwork if it wasn’t for the artists during this time period. Advancements in time such as the Renaissance could not have been possible without the knowledge and talent of these artists, known artists such as Brunelleschi and Leonardo de Vinci. By adding more urbane artwork and architecture, artists during 1500-1800 brought prestige and power to their states.

The scientific revolution was a time of invention and advancement in the sciences. Galileo, who is known as the “father of science,” is one man who helped form science into what it is today. Galileo named moons of Jupiter, furthered inventions with the telescope, and improved science without the help of European monarchs. Other scientists were also involved in the scientific revolution to further the state and state power, such as Descartes. By creating scientific inventions and advancements in their state, they were able to advance state power because their state would then be scientifically further than other states. Being the only state to have a telescope that is improved, of high quality, and invented and enhanced by Galileo would cause a state to be powerful. The inventions and scientific advancements made by European scientists in the time of the 16^th, 17^th, 18^th, and 19^th century improved the power of the states.

Artists and scientists did not intentionally increase their state power. They were doing their jobs, but they made advancements in Europe that brought much change. The European monarchs were not making inventions, making discoveries, or making artwork. They were simply ruling while the artists and scientists did their jobs and furthered the state. Scientists and artists added culture and intelligibility to their states.

Without the contribution of scientists and artists from 1500-1800 major events in Europe would not have occurred. These would be occasions such as the Renaissance and Scientific Revolution. Both of these events improved power and improved Europe, but they would not have been possible without the individual scientists’ and artists’ work and talent. These events in European history, along with other major events that occurred during this time period, enhanced state power. However, the monarchs were not the ones creating the masterpieces or discovering the inventions, therefore; they were not the cause of the increase in state power.

Theses for Other Possible Essays

5. The Thirty Years' War was a monumental war in Europe, but the countries that were involved created that aftermath of it, and they caused it to be such a big turning point in history.

Thesis Practice 1

In the Treaty of Utrecht, Austria was the most benefited because it gained land from Italy to the Netherlands.